Ethical Issues in Biotechnology

Fig. 2 - Bollworm Larva

Today, the concept of biotechnology also covers a range of sophisticated processes that raise ethical, social, environmental, moral and legal issues. Some of these involve the effects on human embryos, experimental animals, the environment, farmers, consumers and various religious groups.

Stem Cell Research and Human Embryos

Much of the controversy around the use of human embryonic stem cells arises from current ‘therapeutic cloning’ research. This process involves the creation of a human embryo using the techniques of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). In this procedure, the nucleus from an adult body cell is removed and inserted into an enucleated egg cell (see fig. 1). The resulting diploid cell is then cultivated in the laboratory until it reaches the blastocyst stage (a mass of around 200 cells).

Stem cells are then extracted from the blastocyst and stimulated to grow into the specific cells required in patients suffering from diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Other areas of research include the use of these stem cells to grow replacement bone, cartilage, muscle and neural tissue in humans.

Some human life groups regard the blastocysts produced for therapeutic cloning as human beings that consequently should not be used for experimental purposes. In 2006, George Bush vetoed a bill to extend the funding for stem cell research in the U.S., with the result that only cells derived from existing embryos could be used. President Obama reversed this decision in 2009 to include newer stem cell lines but funding for cells created in the future is limited to those produced privately or at a state level.

Alternatives to the use of embryonic stem cells are currently being investigated, and include the potential use of adult stem cells from bone marrow and umbilical cords to replace skin, nerve or muscle cells and the reprogramming of adult skin cells to emulate stem cells by introducing artificial viruses. This research has the approval of many Church groups as it does not involve the destruction of embryos.

Fig. 1 - Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Genetically Modified Foods

Genetically modified food is produced from organisms containing genes from another species. Examples include Bt cotton , which contains a bacterial gene for bollworm resistance (see fig. 2) , 'Roundup Ready' GM Canola, which is resistant to herbicides and virus-resistant sweet potatoes. Other examples include Golden rice, high in beta carotene because it contains genes from daffodils and bacteria and ‘Sumo Salmon’, which contains a gene for bovine growth hormone. The obvious benefits of GM foods include improved yield and nutrition, resistance to pesticides, herbicides and weather extremes, longer shelf life, and increased food security in poorer nations.

Concerns with GM crops include the fact that some of them contain patented genes, which has several ramifications, including the risk of horizontal gene transfer via pollen to neighbouring crops. Farmers owning these crops then become potentially liable if found to have plants containing the gene. This was in fact the case with the Percy Schmeiser family of Saskatchewan, whose crop was contaminated with a gene from Monsanto’s GM Canola.

In addition, many GM crops are sterile, which means that farmers need to keep buying the seeds from the affluent multinationals that produce them. General issues of access also apply here; third world countries, for instance, may have less chance of obtaining the much promoted food security offered by these crops if large companies have a monopoly over them.

Moreover, since some GM companies have prevented peer review of their research, some doubt inevitably remains over the safety of GM foods. Some of these concerns include the risk of contamination by antibiotic resistant marker genes, which could enter the human digestive system, and allergic reactions to unforeseen proteins and toxins produced by introduced genes.

Environmental concerns include horizontal gene transfer, which could, for instance, confer herbicide resistance to weeds, and a general reduction in biodiversity. Genetically modified animals or plants may also overrun native species if released into the wild and harmless insect species may be affected by insecticide resistant plants such as Bt cotton. In addition, religious groups and vegetarians may object to eating plants containing animal genes.

Monoclonal Antibodies and the Treatment of Animals

The production of monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) is a recent development in the field of medical biotechnology. These antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into mice, which stimulates the production of B lymphocytes specific to the antigen in question. The B lymphocytes are then removed from the mouse and fused to cancerous cells (forming hybridoma’ cells) so that they will multiply rapidly and produce large amounts of the desired antibody. Mabs can be used to treat diseases such as breast cancer and leukaemia or to diagnose the presence of cancers or hormones in humans.

Grave concerns, however, have been raised regarding the treatment of mice in this procedure. This includes the fact that the spleen of the mouse is often removed to obtain the required B lymphocytes. Moreover, the use of adjuvants (chemicals which over-stimulate the immune system) has been shown to cause great distress in the animals, as has the ascites method for propagating hybridoma cells. In this method, used when in vitro methods are not feasible, the hybridoma cells are re-injected into the abdominal cavity of the mouse, cultivated and then removed.

Other areas of biotechnology raise similar issues. The benefits we are gaining or may gain in the future from these techniques should be balanced against such concerns.

References

Australian Government NHMRC,2008, 'Guidelines for Monoclonal Antibody Production', nhmrc.gov.au

Human Genome Program, 2008 ‘Genetically Modified Foods and Organisms’,ornl.gov

Monsanto v. Schmeiser, 2010, percyschmeiser.com

National Institutes of Health, 2010, 'Stem Cell Information', nih.gov